18. Main issues of concern of GM food on human health

the three main issues are tendencies to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity), gene transfer and outcrossing.

Allergenicity.

the transfer of genes from commonly allergenic foods is discouraged unless it can be demonstrated that the protein product of the transferred gene is not allergenic. While traditionally developed foods are not generally tested for allergenicity, protocols for tests for GM foods have been evaluated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and WHO. No allergic effects have been found relative to GM foods currently on the market.

Gene transfer

Gene transfer from GM foods to bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract would cause concern if the transferred genetic material adversely affects human health if antibiotic resistance genes, used in creating GMOs, were to be transferred.

Outcrossing

it is referred to as the movement of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or related species in the wild as well as the mixing of crops derived from conventional seeds with those grown using GM crops. Several countries have adopted strategies to reduce mixing, including a clear separation of the fields within which GM crops and conventional crops are grown.

Reference:

World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/

17. How are GM food labelled?

How are GM foods labeled?

Labeling of GM foods and food products is also a contentious issue. labeling should be voluntary and influenced by the demands of the free market. If consumers show preference for labeled foods over non-labeled foods, then industry will have the incentive to regulate itself or risk alienating the customer.

Consumer interest groups, on the other hand, are demanding mandatory labeling. People have the right to know what they are eating, and industry has proven itself to be unreliable at self-compliance with existing safety regulations. The FDA's current position on food labeling is governed by the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act which is only concerned with food additives, not whole foods or food products that are considered "GRAS" - generally recognized as safe.

The FDA contends that GM foods are substantially equivalent to non-GM foods, and therefore not subject to more stringent labeling. If all GM foods and food products are to be labeled, Congress must enact sweeping changes in the existing food labeling policy.

If the food production industry is required to label GM foods, factories will need to construct two separate processing streams and monitor the production lines accordingly. Farmers must be able to keep GM crops and non-GM crops from mixing during planting, harvesting and shipping.

Secondly, what are the acceptable limits of GM contamination in non-GM products? The EC has determined that 1% is an acceptable limit of cross-contamination, yet many consumer interest groups argue that only 0% is acceptable. Some companies such as Gerber baby foods and Frito-Lay have pledged to avoid use of GM foods in any of their products.

What is the level of detectability of GM food cross-contamination?
Scientists agree that current technology is unable to detect minute quantities of contamination, so ensuring 0% contamination using existing methodologies is not guaranteed. Yet researchers disagree on what level of contamination really is detectable, especially in highly processed food products such as vegetable oils or breakfast cereals where the vegetables used to make these products have been pooled from many different sources. A 1% threshold may already be below current levels of detectability.

Finally, who is to be responsible for educating the public about GM food labels and how costly will that education be?
Food labels must be designed to clearly convey accurate information about the product in simple language that everyone can understand. This may be the greatest challenge faced be a new food labeling policy: how to educate and inform the public without damaging the public trust and causing alarm or fear of GM food products.

Reference:
http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php

16. BT corn

Bt corn is a GMO (genetically modified organism) and is also called the Transgenic maize corn. Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis. And Bt corn is formed when the gene is inserted into its DNA in which it protects the corn from insects. The gene was isolated from the Bacillus thuringiensis, a microorganism found in soil.

Bt corn is resistant to herbicides, which makes it possible to use herbicides without damaging or killing the crop itself. Insecticides are no longer necessary with Bt corn, because the introduction of the Bt gene protects it from pests.

Although there were concerns of Bt corn pollen producing a threat to the monarch butterflies, studies later showed that this was not the case.
the pests themselves can become resistant to the Bt toxin. farmers who grow Bt corn are required to also plant regular corn close by. The regular corn is supposed to harbor pests so it is less likely that natural selection will help develop a Bt resistant population. There are also concerns with cross pollination, but because pollen are wind born, planting a larger field of non Bt corn can solve the issue.

Buske.C. Bt Corn. Available at: http://biotechpharmaceuticals.suite101.com/article.cfm/bt_corn

15. Labelling issues

In the UK, labelling issues are addressed by the Food Advisory Committee (FAC). this committee published a set of guidelines for determining whether a food containing material from a GMO should be labelled.

the provisions for labelling in the new European Regulations are as follows:

1. specific labelling requirements shall apply to ensure that the consumer is informed of:

• any characteristics or food property, such as composition, nutritional value or nutritional effects, or intended use of food, which renders a novel food or food ingredient significantly different from an existing food or food ingredient. in such a case, the labelling must mention the characteristics or properties modified, accompanied by a method by which that characteristic or property was obtained;
• the presence in the novel food or food ingredient of material which is not present in an existing equivalent foodstuff, and which may have implications for the health of certain sections of the populations
• the presence in the novel food or food ingredient of material which is not present in an existing equivalent foodstuff and which may give rise to ethical concerns.
• the presence in the food or food ingredient of a genetically modified organism within the meaning of Directive 90/220/EEC if, according to a committee (European Standing Committee on Foodstuffs) decision under Article 13, it does not corresspond solely to modification of its agricultural characteristics.

2. in the absence of existing equivalent food or food ingredient, appropriate provisions shall be adopted where neccessary in order to ensure that consumers are adequately informed of the nature of the food or food ingredient.

Reference:

Institute of Food Science and Technology (UK). Labelling issues. Guide to Food Technology. Year 1996. Chapter 9.Pages 51,52.

14. Myotoxin Contamination

Mycotoxin contamination

Asperigillus Flavus and Fusarium spp. produce potent myocotoxin (aflatoxins and tricothecenes respectively). government throughout the world have established allowable limits for several mycotoxins in food.

U.S Food And Drug Administration (FDA) allows 20 micrograms/kg(ppb) contamination of aflatoxins in food (aimed at nuts and nut products). allowable levels for feed are higher (e.g. 300 ppb).

Most mycotoxin detection is done through antibody based tests or analytical chemical techniques (e.g. high performance liquid chromatography [HPLC])

Reference:
Johnson.P. Department of Biology Acadia University. Introduction to Food Technology. Year 2002. Chapter 6, Diagnostic Systems. Page 156.

13. Diagnostics for saftey and authenication of foods.

Bioluminescence
the use of this method has necesitated the development of specific clean up procedures for removing non microbial ATP from foods. it also can be engineered into bacterial genomes and luminescence used as a measure of biological activity in the presence of environment toxins.

Enzyme Based Assays and immunodiagnostics
sensitivity, specificity and simplicity have been improved by conjugating enzymes with specific antibody giving rise to Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay(ELISA).

In food microbiology, ELISAs have a greater impact. Pathogens including Salmonella, Listeria and Escherichia Coli and the bacterial toxins from Staphylococcus Aureus, Bacillus Cereus and Clostridium Botulinum can now be detected using commericial kits. Furthurmore, ELISA kits are able to detect fungal toxins such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin. It is also used to detect Clostridium Botulinum enterotoxins and certain molds (e.g. Asperigiullus and Penicillium spp.)

DNA Probes
Gene probes are specific. Simple methods based on nucleic acid probes are developed for detecting specific genes expressing gungal toxins. they also have potential in authenicity testing. however, a problem is faced as most DNA probes can only detect approximately 10^5 cells/ml in a food matrix.and many pathogenic microorganisms that may be present at very low levels need to be enriched using conventional cultural methods. this problem can be solved as nanogram quantities of DNA can be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and is able to detect Legionella at a levele of 100 cells/ml in 4h. Similar developments were developed to detect Salmonella. therefore, gene probes are constructed to contain complementary bases which hydrise target DNA sequences.

Biosensors
Most diagnostic involve the specific binding of target molecule to a recognition molecule. binding event is sensed by labelling the ligated complex. optical biosensors are developed for the estimation of biotin and folate and for the detection of Salmonella and Listeria.

Reference:
Institute of Food Science and Technology (UK). Diagnostics for saftey and authenication of foods. Guide to Food Technology. Year 1996. Pages 41-45.

12. Various common food toxins and toxicity

I found the various common food toxins, pathogens and its toxicity.

In food, the common foodborne pathogens are Bacillus Cereus, Clostridium Botulinum, Esherichia Coli, Listeria Monocytogenes, Salmonella, Staphylococcus Aureus, and Asperigillus Flavus.

Peanut butter which is produced by the company contains foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella, Aspergillus Flavus, Staphylococcus Aureus, Rhizopus and Clostridium Botulinum. It also contains mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin which is produced by Asperigillus Flavus.

Bacillus Cereus
- cause Bacillus Cereus Food poisoning and it produces a diarrhoeal enterotoxin.
-sources: milk, dairy products.
- can be identified by the isolation and enumeration of B.cereus, preferably in both the infected food and the faeces of the victims.
- Procedures for isolation and enumeration of B.cereus involve direct agar plating techniques. However methods for detecting B.cereus enterotoxins are neither highly specific nor quantitative.
- Optimum temperature range for this emetic toxin production is 25 to 30 C. the emetic toxin is heat stable and can withstand normal cooking temperatures. So food is to be cooled rapidly to a temperature that prevents the growth of B.Cereus and food to be held in a warm state should be maintained above 60C.

Clostridium Botulinum
- can cause food borne botulism and produces C.botulinum toxin.
- Sources: may occur in almost all food, vegetable or animal origin.
- No microbiology methods are specifically designed for C.botulinum. Methods of enumerating the clostridia usually rely on reduction of sulphite to sulphide with the formation of black colonies which demonstrates the presence of C.botulinum by enrichment culture and toxin tests.

Escherichia Coli
- can cause infection and food borne illness.
- Sources: Milk, meat.
- Isolation of pathogenic E.coli involves plating sample on MacConkey or eosin-methylene blue agar.
- Enrichment and selective procedures would be carried out after black colonies are picked and identified as E.coli.
- Detection for E.coli is facilitated by enrichment and electromagnetic separation. Several biochemical tests are done to identify E.coli and some examples are Gram’s stain positive, indole positive, mannitol-positive, and Voges-Proskauer-negative. Important measures are taken to prevent food poisioning by education food workers in safe food handling techniques and proper personal hygiene.

Listeria Monocytogenes
- can cause listeriosis.
- sources: raw meat, wet sirfaces in food processing plants.
- an opportunistic pathogen that is capable of surving and multiplying in simple nutrient media and outside animal hosts.
- able to grow in simple bacteriological media. It is able to grow at low temperatures and thus multiply.
- Isolation can be done after plating onto non selective media such as blood soy agar and selective media such as modified McBride’s agar. Several enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods and nucleic acid probes are available for identification purposes.
- Listeriosis can be reduced whereby HACCP should be applied from farm to consumers to minimize the risk of food borne illnesses.

Salmonella
- can cause gastroenteritis, enteric fever and bacteraemia, focal infections and sequelae.
- sources: food of animal origin.
- Detection of salmonella involves pre-enrichment, enrichment, selective differential plating, isolation and identification.
- enumerated by the most probable number technique though it is a cumbersome procedure and too expensive for use in large number of samples.
- Identification of Salmonella can be done by primary screening on non selective differential agars such as triple sugar iron (TSI), and further identification can be done by biochemical testing of pure cultures. With the use of heat, irradiation, acidification and combinations of factors are used to destroy salmonella in food since low numbers of salmonellae can cause illness.

Staphylococcus Aureus
- can cause staphylococcal food poisoning.
- Sources: mucous membrane, and skin of all food animals.
- method of enumeration is Baird Parker’s medium.
- procedure for detecting staphylococcal enterotoxin in food is a combination of extraction, concentration and final detection of the toxin by the use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
- Control can be achieved by preventing products from contamination and avoiding conditions where growth may occur.

Asperigillus
- produces mycotoxins and can cause mycotoxin poisoning.
- sources: peanut, corn, cottonseed.
- Enumeration of Asperigillus flavus can be done on antibacterial enumeration medium that contains inhibitors to reduce colony spreading.
- Identification of Asperigillus flavus grow rapidly on standard identification media such as malt extract agar. Asperigillus also produces mycotoxins such as aflatoxins which are found to be acute and chronically toxic in both animals and in man.
- ELISA techniques are used for toxin estimation and controlling of aflatoxin in corn can be directly detected when they fluoresce under UV light.


Reference:
Blackie Academic & Professional. Microorganisms In Foods 5. Microbiological specifications of food pathogens. 1996

p.s: book found in school library.

11. When to label food as Genetically Modified?

Found an useful decision tree in the FoodSafety.gov.au website which i think might be useful.
Reference:

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/user_guide_GM_labelling_0817.pdf (accessed: 16 June 2008)

10. How to distinguish GM food from natural food?

In the learning issues in our HFLA template, i was to research on ways to distinguish GM food from natural food and these were what i have found.

To distinguish GM food from natural food, it is important to check the presence of marker genes and promoter genes as these genes are using in the process of transformation.
Marker genes are used to quantify gene expression and to ensure that the DNA is properly delivered and transformation is stable. However, for plant cell transformation, marker genes can only be expressed inside cells of the target tissue and not in any contaminating microorganisms.
Also, Promoter genes are used in the process of transformation as it starts the mechanism of the DNA chain and cooperates with marker genes.


Reference:
Genes needed for transformation. http://library.thinkquest.org/C004033F/gmprocess_genes.htm (accessed: 14 June 2008)

9. Advantages and Disadvantages of GM food

Found some information on the advantages and disadvantages on GM food as well.

Advantages:

1. Increase the crop yields to feed the world population
2. Increase the tolerance of crops to adverse growing conditions, e.g. drought
3. improve the nutrient composition of crops, e.g. increase the protein content of rice.
4. Provide resistance to crop pests and reduce the use of pesticides by growing GM food such as Bt corn, i.e. save the environment
5. Improve sensory attributes of food, e.g. flavor, texture
6. Improve the processing characteristics so as to reduce wastage of food and minimize the cost during transport and storage
7. Eliminate allergy-causing properties in some foods
8. herbicide tolerance. Crop plants genetically-engineered to be resistant to one powerful herbicide could help prevent environmental damage by reducing the amount of herbicides needed. For example, Monsanto's strain of soybeans.
9. Disease resistance.
10. Pharmaceuticals. Medicines and vaccines are costly to produce and sometimes require special storage conditions not readily available in third world countries. Researchers are working to develop edible vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes

Disadvantages:

1. Unintended modification of similar species in the neighboring fields due to cross pollination
2. Disturbing the balance of ecosystems, e.g. some animals may lose their home when extending farmland area
3. A chance of developing super pests as DNA is changed
4. The initial genetic structure of both animals and plants will be disturbed
5. Vegetarians may worry about eating plants which contains genes from animals for religious, health or other reasons
6. Unintended harm to other organisms. pollen from B.t. corn caused high mortality rates in monarch butterfly caterpillars. Unfortunately, B.t. toxins kill many species of insect larvae indiscriminately; it is not possible to design a B.t. toxin that would only kill crop-damaging pests and remain harmless to all other insects.
7. Reduced effectiveness of pesticides. there are concerns that insects will become resistant to B.t. or other crops that have been genetically-modified to produce their own pesticides.
8. Allergenicity (Human health risk) There is a possibility that introducing a gene into a plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic reaction in individuals. testing of GM foods may be required to avoid the possibility of harm to consumers with food allergies. Labeling of GM foods and food products plays an important role.
9. Economic concerns. Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costly process. Many new plant genetic engineering technologies and GM plants have been patented Yet consumer advocates are worried that patenting these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high that small farmers and third world countries will not be able to afford seeds for GM crops, thus widening the gap between the wealthy and the poor.

Reference:

GM Food. http://library.thinkquest.org/C004033F/pros&cons_text.htm (accessed: 14 June 2008)

http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php

8. What is GM food?

What is GM food?

In Standard 1.5.2, GM food is described as “food produced using gene technology” and is defined as “a food which has been derived or developed from an organism which has been modified by gene technology”, where gene technology is defined as “recombinant-DNA techniques that alter the heritable genetic material of living cells or organisms”.

Reference:
Frequently Asked Questions on Genetically Modified Food. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Revised on March 2008. http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/foodmatters/gmfoods/frequentlyaskedquest3862.cfm (accessed: 14 June 2008)

7. Process of Genetic Modification

Was tasked to find out about genetic modification
and these were what i have found on the web.

Production of GMOs is a multistage process which can be summarized as follows:
1. identification of the gene interest;
2. isolation of the gene of interest;
3. amplifying the gene to produce many copies;
4. associating the gene with an appropriate promoter and poly A sequence and insertion into plasmids;
5. multiplying the plasmid in bacteria and recovering the cloned construct for injection;
6. transference of the construct into the recipient tissue, usually fertilized eggs;
7. integration of gene into recipient genome;
8. expression of gene in recipient genome; and
9. inheritance of gene through further generations.

Reference:
A.Beardmore John, S. Porter Joanne. University of Wales SwanseaUnited Kingdom. Genetically Modified Organisms and Aquaculture. Page 4.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/006/y4955e/Y4955E00.pdf

6. Product Recall Procedures

Was instructed to find out more about product recall and its procedures.

What is food recall?
"It is action taken to protect the public from products that may cause health problems or possible death. A recall is intended to remove food products from commerce when there is reason to believe the products may be adulterated or misbranded."

What occurs during investigations?
"It may include some or all of the following steps:
1. Contacting the manufacturer of the food for more information;
2. Interviewing any consumers who allegedly became ill or injured from eating the suspect food;
3. Collecting and analyzing food samples;
4. Collecting and verifying information about the suspected food;
5. Discussions with FSIS field inspection and compliance personnel;
6. Contacting State and local health departments; and
7. Documenting a chronology of events. "

I have also read up that the recall would be classified under 3 classes.

• Class I - A Class I recall involves a health hazard situation in which there is a reasonable probability that eating the food will cause health problems or death.
• Class II - A Class II recall involves a potential health hazard situation in which there is a remote probability of adverse health consequences from eating the food.
• Class III - A Class III recall involves a situation in which eating the food will not cause adverse health consequences.

Reference

http://www.fsis.usda.gov/fact_sheets/fsis_food_recalls/index.asp (accessed: 2 May 2008)

5. IMF or not?

Did some research over the week and i found out that peanut butter has a water activity of 0.7.

and peanut butter is an INTERMEDIATE MOISTURE FOOD as its water activity of 0.7 falls into the IMF range of 0.6 to 0.85.


References:

Department of Health, education and welfare public health service. Food and drug Adminstration. Water activity in food. Available online: http://www.fda.gov/ora/inspect_ref/itg/itg39.html (accessed: 24 April 2008)

Smith D. Stratton J.Understanding GMPs for sauces and dressings. Food processing for entrepreneurs series. Available online: http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/live/g1599/build/g1599.pdf (accessed: 24 April 2008)

4.

Our group did decided to do either bolognese sauce from Bistro Walk or Cookies from Famous Amos, but yet both recipes werent approved by Dr Lee.

So after much discussion, we changed our product to peanutbutter (:

Our online discussion had just ended and we came to a consensus.

We, each, were given a task to research on and we were done with the HFLA template.

Scheduled for a time to meet up as well.

Peanut butter an IMF or HMF food? What kind of microbes grow well in it? (: these i got to find out!

3. RECIPES (:

RECIPE FOR FAMOUS AMOS COOKIES

Ingredients:
1 c. butter (softened)
3/4 c. firmly packed brown sugar
3/4 c. granulated sugar
1 tsp. vanilla
2 eggs
2 1/2 c. flour
1 tsp. baking soda
1/2 tsp. salt
2 c. raisins
1 (12 oz.) pkg. chocolate chips

Method:
Beat butter, brown sugar and granulated sugar with mixer at high speed until creamy. Add vanilla, eggs; blend thoroughly.
By hand stir in flour, baking soda, and salt until well mixed.
Stir in raisins and chocolate pieces; spoon dough by teaspoon 1 1/2 inches apart to allow spreading.
Bake 8 minutes at 375 degrees.
Transfer to wire racks to cool.

Yield: 6 dozen.

Reference:
http://www.cooks.com/rec/doc/0,1910,157181-242194,00.html

RECIPE FOR MRS FIELD’S COOKIES

Ingredients:

cream together
2 cups butter
2 cups sugar
2 cups brown sugar

Add
4 eggs
2 tablespoons Vanilla

Mix together
4 cups Flour
5 cups oatmeal (blend until it becomes powder)
1 tablespoon salt
2 tablespoon baking powder
2 tablespoons baking soda

Method:
Mix all ingredients together.
Add 24 oz. bag of milk chocolate chips, one 8 oz. Hershey Bar (grated) and 3 cups chopped nuts (any kind).
Bake on ungreased cookie sheets.
Make golf-ball sized cookies, 2" apart
bake at 375 degrees for 6-8 minutes
Makes 112 cookies.


Reference:http://www.mealsmatter.org/recipes-meals/recipe/7909 http://www.cooks.com/rec/view/0,1910,154165-234194,00.html

2.

Avian Influenza

Avian influenza is a virus that infects domestic poultry such as chickens and ducks. It is also known as bird flu or H5N1.

There are 2 groups of Avian Influenza strains. and they are the low pathogenic avain influenze (LPAI) and the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI)

LPAI occurs in wild birds and is able to spread to domestic birds. no signs of infection would be shown. LPAI is of little threat to human health. however, HPAI found in chickens and ducks spreads faster than LPAI, has a higher death rate in birds and is fatal.

This virus is commonly spread by direct contact and indirect contact. Healthy birds in contact with the infected birds, would possibly caught the virus. The virus can also be spread by indirect contact with contaminated equipment and materials.

The virus can be found in the faeces of infected birds, and even on shells of eggs.
HPAI can infect the egg yolk, albumen or the egg white. In direct contact with infected birds, HPAI can be spread to humans and consequences are undesirable.

Avian Influenza would not be transmitted when poultry or eggs are not properly prepared. This is because when infected hens stopped laying eggs, it is a sign of illness, and the eggs that were layed by the infected hens would not be washed and graded as the shells of these eggs are weak. Thus, stopping the production of eggs when an outbreak of HPAI is suspected even without a confirmed diagnosis of the virus. That is why eggs sold in the markets are safe to consume and is unlikely to be contaminated with the virus.

Salmonella, being the common foodborne pathogen in eggs, might cause the body to be ill. Eggs, poultry products should be cooked thoroughly and to the right temperature, this can prevent Salmonella to flourish. Also, it is important to prevent cross contamination between raw and cooked food.


Reference
U.S. FDA/Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. (2004). What Consumers Need To Know About Avian Flu. Retrieved: March 3, 2008. Available at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/avfluqa.html

Love,
Lynette

1.

The HFLA template and the HACCP templates have to be filled in and have it ready for submission, so my group members and i came together one morning.

We shared with one another on what we've found in our specific area of research.
Brainstorming was also done to identify the different potential hazards during the receiving of raw materials and even the processing steps of Mum's Pound Cake.

Also, we found out that eggs, one of the ingredients used to make the pound cake, contains pathogen of the genus Salmonella (Salmonella Enteritidis). Curious as we were, we went to find out more about Salmonella in eggs.

Indeed, eggs are excellent medium for the growth of many micro-organisms. Some of the micro-organisms that we have found are Salmonella and Staphyloccocus.

We asked ourselves whether Salmonella has a connection with the Avian Flu outbreak. And it was found that there is no epidemiological information that humans could have been infected by the Avian Influenza via the transmission of disease through contaminated food products based on the current scientific evidence available in the World Health Organisation (WHO).
WHO and other health authorities such as the European Food Safety Authority reiterates that even though the virus may not be passed into humans by raw meat or eggs, inactivation of the virus is possible by cooking food thorougly.

So cooking eggs or poultry products thoroughly is important.

For the next meet up session, we are to share information on Avian Influenza.


References
U.S. FDA/Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. (2004). Analysis of Microbial Hazards Related to Time/Temperature Control of Foods for Safety. Chapter 4. Retrieved: March 31, 2008. Available at: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/ift4-4.html

Food and Environmental Hygiene Department, H.K. Risk Assessment Section (2005). Risk in Brief, Issue No. 22: Avian Influenza Viruses and Food Safety. Retrieved: 31 March 2008. Available at: http://www.fehd.gov.hk/safefood/report/avian_infl_virus/index.html



Love,
Lynette

Brand New Start (: